Part I
Pro: So last time, we covered the dances honey bees do to indicate where food can be found and the calls and songs of different types of birds. Today, I'd like to look at some communication systems found in mammals, particularly in primates, such as orangutans, chimpanzees, gorillas... Yes, Thomas?
Stu: Excuse me, Professor. But when you talk about gorilla language, do you mean like, those experiments where humans taught them sign language or a language like...
Pro: OK, wait just a minute. Now, who in this class heard me use the word "language"? No one I hope. What we're talking about here are systems of communication, all right?
Stu: Oh, sorry, communication, right. But could you maybe, like, clarify what the difference is?
上一次，我们介绍了蜜蜂为了指明觅食位置而进行的舞蹈以及不同种类鸟的叫声和歌声。
1. cover|ˈkʌvə(r)|
verb. to include sth; to deal with sth 包括；包含；涉及；处理
E.g.: The lectures covered a lot of ground (= a lot of material, subjects, etc.) .
这些讲座涉及的内容极为广泛丰富。
2. mammal 哺乳动物, primate 灵长动物, orangutan (红毛)猩猩, chimpanzee 黑猩猩, gorilla 大猩猩
3. sign language
a system of communicating with people who cannot hear, by using hand movements rather than spoken words 手势语；手语
E.g.: The deaf and mute communicate by sign language.
聋哑人用手语交际。
4. clarify |ˈklærəfaɪ|
verb. to make sth clearer or easier to understand 使更清晰易懂；阐明；澄清
E.g.: She asked him to clarify what he meant.
她要他说清楚他是什么意思。
Part II
Pro: Of course, that's a fair question. OK, well, to start with, let's make it clear that language is a type of communication, not the other way around. OK, so all communication systems, language included, have certain features in common. For example, the signals used to communicate from the bee's dance movements, to the word and sentences found in human languages. All these signals convey meaning. And all communication systems serve a purpose, a pragmatic function of some sort–warning of danger perhaps or offering other needed information. But there're several features peculiar to human language that have, for the most part, never been found in the communication system of any other species.
For one thing, learnability. Animals…animals have instinctive communication systems. When a dog, a puppy gets to certain age, it's able to bark. It barks without having to learn how from other dogs, it just barks. But much of human language has to be learned from other humans. What else makes human language unique? What makes it different from animal communication? Deborah?
所有的沟通系统都有一个目的，某种实用的功能——可能是为了警告危险或者提供其它所需的信息。但是，人类语言有一些独有的特征，通常这些特征在任何其他物种的沟通系统中都未被发现。
1. the other way around
the opposite situation 相反的情况
E.g.: I didn't leave you. It was the other way round (= you left me).
我没有离开你，是你离开了我。
2. pragmatic|prægˈmætɪk|
adj. solving problems in a practical and sensible way rather than by having fixed ideas or theories 实用的；讲求实效的；务实的
E.g.: They're pragmatic about the spending cuts.
他们在削减开支方面很务实。
3. sort|sɔ:rt|
noun. a group or type of people or things that are similar in a particular way 种类；类别；品种
E.g.: For dessert there's a fruit pie of some sort (= you are not sure what kind).
甜点是某一种水果派。
4. peculiar|pɪˈkju:liə(r)|
adj. belonging or relating to one particular place, situation, person, etc., and not to others （某人、某地、某种情况等）特有的，特殊的
E.g.: a humour that is peculiar to American sitcoms
美国情景喜剧特有的幽默
5. for the most part
mostly; usually 多半；通常
E.g.: The contributors are, for the most part, professional scientists.
投稿者大多是专业科学家。
6. learnability|lɜnə'bɪlɪtɪ|
noun. the quality of being learnable 可学习性，易学性
E.g.: It also examines how learnability interacts with these three attributes.
它还检验了可学习性如何与这三个属性相互作用。。
7. instinctive|ɪnˈstɪŋktɪv|
adj. based on instinct , not thought or training 本能的；直觉的；天生的
E.g.: My instinctive reaction was to deny everything.
我的本能反应是否认一切。
8. bark|bɑ:rk|
verb. the short loud sound made by dogs and some other animals （狗等的）吠声，嗥叫声
E.g.: Our dog, Rex, used to sit outside our front gate and bark.
我们的狗雷克斯过去常蹲在大门外吠叫。
Part III
Stu: How about grammar? Like having verbs, nouns, adjectives?
Pro: OK, that's another feature. And it's a good example...
Stu: I mean I mention this ‘cause like in my biology class last year, I kind of remember talking about a study on prairie dogs, where, I think theresearchers claimed that the warning cries of prairie dogs constitute language, because they have these different parts of speech. You know, like nouns, to name the type of predator they spotted, adjectives to describe its size and shape, verbs..., but now it seems like...
Pro: All right, hold on a moment. I'm familiar with the study you're talking about. And for those of you who don't know, prairie dogs are not actually dogs.They're a type of rodent who, who burrow in the ground, in the grasslands of the western United States and Mexico.
In this study, the researchers looked at the high-pitched barks a prairie dog makes when it spots predator. And from this they made some pretty.., well, they made some claims about these calls qualifying as an actual language, with its own primitive grammar. But actually, these warning calls are no different from those found among certain types of monkeys. And, well, let's not even get into the question of whether concepts like noun and verb can be meaningfully applied to animal communication.
我们甚至没必要讨论像名词、动词等这样的语法概念是否可以有意义地应用于动物交流的问题。
1. prairie |ˈpreri|
noun. a flat wide area of land in N America and Canada, without many trees and originally covered with grass （北美的）大草原
E.g.: The pictures depicting the life of the prairie people are simple but touching.
这些描绘草原人民生活的画面都很素朴动人。
2. constitute |ˈkɑ:nstətu:t|
verb. to be considered to be sth 被视为;可算作
E.g.: Does such an activity constitute a criminal offence?
难道这样的活动也算刑事犯罪吗？
3. part of speech
one of the classes into which words are divided according to their grammar, such as noun, verb, adjective, etc. 词类；词性
E.g.: Verb tenses, parts of speech, count and non-count nouns - studying grammar can give you a headache.
动词时态 、 词性 、 可数及不可数名词 —— 学文法可真让人头痛。
4. name|neɪm|
verb. to say the name of sb/sth 说出…的名称；叫出…的名字
E.g.: Can you name all the American states?
你能说出美国所有的州名吗？
5. spot |spɑ:t|
verb. to see or notice a person or thing, especially suddenly or when it is not easy to do so 看见；看出；注意到；发现
E.g.: Neighbours spotted smoke coming out of the house.
邻居们发现有烟从这所房子里冒出来。
6. rodent 啮齿动物，amphibian 两栖动物，reptile 爬行动物，mollusk 软体动物，mammal 哺乳动物，arthropod 节肢动物
7. burrow|ˈbɜ:roʊ|
verb. to make a hole or a tunnel in the ground by digging 挖掘（洞或洞穴通道）；挖洞
E.g.: Earthworms burrow deep into the soil.
蚯蚓钻土很深。
8. high-pitched
adj. very high 很高的；尖厉的
E.g.: A woman squealed in a high-pitched voice.
一个女人大声尖叫。
Part IV
Another thing that distinguishes a real language is a property we call "discreteness". In other words, messages are built up out of smaller parts, sentences out of words, words out of individual sounds, etc. Now maybe you could say that the prairie dog's message is built from smaller parts.
Like, say for example, our prairie dog spots a predator, a big coyote approaching rapidly. So the prairie dog makes a call that means "coyote", then one that means "large", and then another one to indicate its speed. But do you really suppose it makes any difference what order these calls come in? No.
But the discrete units that make up language can be put together in different ways. Those smaller parts can be used to form an infinite number of messages, including messages that are completely novel, that have never been expressed before. For example, we can differentiate between: "A large coyote moves fast." and say "Move the large coyote fast." or "Move fast, large coyote.", and I truly doubt whether anyone has ever uttered either of these sentences before. Human language is productive, an open-ended communication system, whereas no other communication system has this property.
土拨鼠发出了一个意思是“狼”的叫声，然后是一个意思是“大”的叫声，然后是另一个表示它的速度的叫声。但是你真的以为发出这些叫声的顺序会让意思表达有什么不同吗？不。
1. property|ˈprɑ:pərti|
noun. a quality or characteristic that sth has 性质；特性
E.g.: Compare the physical properties of the two substances.
比较一下这两种物质的物理特性。
2. discrete |dɪˈskri:t|
adj. independent of other things of the same type 分离的；互不相连的；各别的
E.g.: The organisms can be divided into discrete categories.
有机体可分为许多互不相联的种类。
3. approach|əˈproʊtʃ|
verb. to come near to sb/sth in distance or time （在距离或时间上）靠近，接近
E.g.: We heard the sound of an approaching car/a car approaching.
我们听见一辆汽车驶近的声音。
4. coyote |kaɪˈoʊti|
noun. a small wolf which lives in the plains of North America 丛林狼，草原狼
E.g.: The Indian hurled his spear at the coyote.
那印地安人将他的长矛用力掷向那只土狼。
5. come in
if information, a report, or a telephone call comes in, it is received (信息)传来;(报告或电话)接收到
E.g.: News is coming in of a serious plane crash in France.
刚收到的消息说法国发生了一起严重的飞机坠毁事故。
6. infinite |ˈɪnfɪnət|
adj. without limits; without end 无限的；无穷尽的
E.g.: The most amazing thing about nature is its infinite variety.
大自然最让人惊叹的是它的无限多样性。
7. novel |ˈnɑ:vl|
adj. different from anything known before; new, interesting and often seeming slightly strange 新颖的；与众不同的；珍奇的
E.g.: Protesters found a novel way of demonstrating against steeply rising oil prices.
抗议者找到了抗议油价飞涨的新办法。
8. differentiate |ˌdɪfəˈrenʃieɪt|
verb. to recognize or show that two things are not the same 区分；区别；辨别
E.g.: It's difficult to differentiate between the two varieties.
这两个品种很难辨别。
9. say |seɪ|
verb. to suggest or give sth as an example or a possibility 比方说；假设
E.g.: You could learn the basics in, let's say , three months.
比方说，三个月你就可以掌握基本知识。
10. utter |ˈʌtə(r)|
verb. to make a sound with your voice; to say sth 出声；说；讲
E.g.: She did not utter a word during lunch (= said nothing).
进午餐时，她一言未发。
11. productive |prəˈdʌktɪv|
adj. making goods or growing crops, especially in large quantities 生产的；（尤指）多产的
E.g.: More productive farmers have been able to provide cheaper food.
农民提高产量就能使食物更加便宜。
12. open-ended
adj. without any limits, aims or dates fixed in advance 无限制的；无确定目标的；无期限的
E.g.: Girls do better on open-ended tasks that require them to think for themselves.
女孩子更擅长需要独立思考的开放式任务。
Part V
And another feature of language that's not displayed by any form of animal communication is what we call "displacement". That is, language is abstract enough that we can talk about things that aren't present here and now. Things like "My friend Joe is not in the room." or "It will probably rain next Thursday." Prairie dogs may be able to tell you about a hawk that’s circling overhead right now, but they never show any inclination to describe the one they saw last week.
也就是说，语言足够抽象，我们才可以谈论此时此地不存在的事物。
1. display|dɪˈspleɪ|
verb. to show signs of sth, especially a quality or feeling 显示，显露，表现（特性或情感等）
E.g.: These statistics display a definite trend.
这些统计数据表现出一种明显的趋势。
2. displacement |dɪsˈpleɪsmənt|
noun. displacement is the removal of something from its usual place or position by something which then occupies that place or position 取代;代替
E.g.: the displacement of all my energy into caring for the baby
我所有精力都放在了照顾宝宝上
3. that is (to say)
used to say what sth means or to give more information 也就是说；即；换句话说
E.g.:We plan on going to the concert—that is, if tickets are still available.
我们打算去听音乐会，如果还有票的话。
4. abstract |ˈæbstrækt|
adj. existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical reality 抽象的（与具体经验相对）
E.g.: We may talk of beautiful things but beauty itself is abstract.
我们尽可谈论美的事物，但美本身却是抽象的。
5. hawk |hɔ:k|
noun. a strong fast bird of prey(a bird that kills other creatures for food) 鹰；隼
E.g.: He waited, watching her like a hawk (= watching her very closely).
他等待着，用鹰一样锐利的目光紧盯着她。
6. inclination |ˌɪnklɪˈneɪʃn|
noun. a tendency to do sth 趋向；趋势
E.g.: There is an inclination to treat geography as a less important subject.
有一种趋向认为地理是一门次要的学科。
10个月宝宝每天需要喝多少奶粉？
